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Nitpicker_Red

Member
Nov 3, 2017
1,282
Having been an NOA contractor QA, the premise is better than you'd think. The company gives first-time contractors a seminar on how to find and file bugs, and the permanent staff are good about keeping contractors on task. There are those that are clearly unfit, but they get weeded out quickly.

Anyway, like Reggie said, NOA only localizes games and tests for bugs. They technically don't do any coding themselves. The jobs they contract out are on a project basis and can go anywhere from a couple of weeks to several months.
Thanks for the post.


I think it's possible to make a parralel between the concept that:
-Localization and testing are tasks that can be speeded up by hiring more people, Development less so.
With:
-Amdahl's law on performance speedup that explicits that some parts of an algorithm can be sped up by parallelisation (aka. hire more processors to do the task) while other parts can only be performed linearly and won't benefit from parallelisation to reduce execution time.

Which hints that there's a limit of how much you can speed up overall development by hiring more people=adding man-hours without adding actual time.
I think this is a key concept to understanding crunch in relation to project management (from an algorithmic point of view).
 

Filipus

Prophet of Regret
Avenger
Dec 7, 2017
5,148
If I remember correctly the main problem that this was causing was the psychological obligation to crunch because you were seen as inferior if you did not crunch (you're not as passionate, you don't deliver as much content, etc...). I feel the solution goes in making sure management doesn't penalize the lack of crunching and rewards healthy behavior.

I personally see no problem in a developer choosing to crunch on its own free will BUT I believe it should be a "positive" crunch (an example of a negative crunch would be the idea that if everyone is doing it you should do it too or that would mean you are not as valuable in the team). The creative arts demand that extra time many times because of something called creativity. Sometimes you are inspired and you have to ride on that.

So I believe a change of culture will do more for the industry than unionization ever will. And if that requires a change in the way we consume this medium, so be it.
 

Khanimus

Avenger
Oct 25, 2017
40,467
Greater Vancouver
post-3776-1137969677.jpg


This comic needs to be updated stat but with Waypoint being the interviewer and shitty publishers dodging the question about crunch. Also, Unionize. Y'all look like chumps letting these companies work you like indentured servants. Have some respect for yourselves and your talents.
As if they wouldn't be risking their careers with an industry that has no problem with an influx of new "passionate" labor coming in at a constant rate. Establishing an industry-wide union is a fight, and alot of people can't afford to lose their jobs in the risk of that fight.
 
Oct 26, 2017
6,609
CDPRs Response sounds like something I'd expect from a polish company. So far I haven't met a polish worker that wasn't pulling insane hours and working like an ox.

Anecdotal for sure, but I've heard this attitude from polish people before, so I am not surprised.
 

Sesha

▲ Legend ▲
Member
Oct 25, 2017
9,860
Crunch exists on the flawed notion that longer hours equals more work done. In reality, more hours means less concentrated and more tired workers and more mistakes being made, that in turn requires even more crunching to fix. Perhaps crunch does produce results on a short term basis, but on a regular long term basis it's more trouble than it's worth.

As for this notion that unions and less crunch would mean more expensive games, if so then bring it. I don't care. I only buy a handful of new games a year anyway.
 

Mizavari

Member
Jan 19, 2018
271
I guess I'm not the only one disappointed that there was nothing on Nintendo of Japan, but here's an interesting thought: does Nintendo of Japan need to crunch?
  • It's got several tankers' worth of cash and no debt. It absolutely doesn't need to worry about meeting deadlines to pay their bills. I get the impression they don't Really care that much about investors either.
  • It doesn't announce release dates well in advance. Hell it doesn't announce the existence of most games well in advance. Many games only get definitive release dates half a year in advance, and by then you can be certain that it's pretty much done already.
  • And if it turns out that the game really isn't ready, they just delay it like it's nobody's business (see Zelda, and many of us suspect Yoshi was delayed).
  • Nintendo of Japan is big. I read somewhere that when someone at Nintendo of Japan comes up with an idea, he walks around gathering people to work on a prototype. So maybe it works that way for development too: if they're approaching a deadline, they walk around kidnapping people from other divisions. Since most games don't have release dates coming up soon, nobody on the outside would even know if some other game was delayed as a result.
So yeah. Maybe Nintendo of Japan doesn't need to crunch much. But most companies wouldn't be able to replicate them.
 

Panic Freak

Member
Oct 26, 2017
4,590
Crunch exists on the flawed notion that longer hours equals more work done. In reality, more hours means less concentrated and more tired workers and more mistakes being made, that in turn requires even more crunching to fix. Perhaps crunch does produce results on a short term basis, but on a regular long term basis it's more trouble than it's worth.

As for this notion that unions and less crunch would mean more expensive games, if so then bring it. I don't care. I only buy a handful of new games a year anyway.

When a deadline is looming, longer hours does in fact lead to more work being done. The quality of work may be in question though. Take it from a guy that has to write reports to coincide with an annual tax deadline.
 

jakoo

Member
Oct 27, 2017
1,112
This is some great journalism from Waypoint. Its a shame that the reality of the game industry is such that journalists usually doesn't have such high-density access to creators and studios, so it's great that they used E3 for this purpose instead of the typical hype machine.

It's good that these studios are on the record with their stances, because now they are accountable to these statements if their employees leak anything to the contrary.
 

Filipus

Prophet of Regret
Avenger
Dec 7, 2017
5,148
is unionisation not a change of culture?

It is but in a different way. I think the changes that unionization brings tackles the problem of crunching in a wrong way and crunching is connected to a lot of other problems (job security, fresh blood employment, salaries, etc..). It does a lot of good and I'm not against it BUT I feel there is a better way.
I don't know how games will change if we become a industry that is fully unionized (will they simply increase in price? I don't think it can be as simple as that) but I feel that the changes in culture I was suggesting would allow a lot of problem solving without destroying what we already have (that I like in my personal opinion).

I guess we will have to see
 

Spedfrom

Member
Oct 27, 2017
1,139
I think crunch is ridiculous. As in the unpaid type of crunch. If crunch is needed but people are getting paid overtime as they should, then it's all up to the individuals and the company to agree on what amount of extra time is necessary.

Personally, I'd never crunch for CDPR. I'd never even work for them. I find their games bland and uninteresting and would dread every single day working on something I wouldn't want to play. Have no type at all for Cyberpunk. However, I'd happily crunch for Naughty Dog to help bring to life some of the most amazing, emotional and satisfying games I've ever played. It's all relative. But provided I was getting paid my due overtime, of course, at acceptable rates.
 

Gnorman

Banned
Jan 14, 2018
2,945
This is some great journalism from Waypoint. Its a shame that the reality of the game industry is such that journalists usually doesn't have such high-density access to creators and studios, so it's great that they used E3 for this purpose instead of the typical hype machine.

It's good that these studios are on the record with their stances, because now they are accountable to these statements if their employees leak anything to the contrary.
Why do Waypoint care so much about something that the people involved don't seem to care about though. I would expect countless anonymous horror stories but they are few and very far between. It's weird the people making the most noise are people outside looking in
 

Deleted member 5593

User requested account closure
Banned
Oct 25, 2017
2,635
Theres seems to be a lot of misinformation running in this thread. Im not sure where people got the idea that game developers are under paid with bad benefits or that game developers generally have a problem with crunch time.

As someone who worked in the industry for the better part of a decade, in multiple studios, it has been my personal experience that most developers have absolutely no problem with Crunch. The "dread" of crunch is more of a running joke to scare newbies. The main reasons for this being okay with crunch include, but are not limited to,

They don't want to work in a different industry.

They get very large amounts of vacation time. Some go so far as two save it for two years and then takes months off.

On top of their regular paid vacation, most studios close for two weeks at the end of the year, with pay.

They have very relaxed work schedules in non-crunch development cycles. Some people choose to work nights, some choose afternoons and some work regular hours.

They want their project to be finished and of the highest possible quality.

They get paid well, even if they could make more elsewhere.

Non-salaried employees get paid time and a half and double time.

They get a lot of free stuff.

They get to go to conventions like PAX for free, even if they are not working. Most developers are in fact big fans of video games.

And many more reasons.

I can honestly say, in all my years in the industry, I've never met a single person who wanted to Unionize. Unions would break the industry in ways people do not understand. Regular labor laws already get in the way of how many people want to run their work day. Some examples,

Many states require mandatory breaks, one hour for lunch and two fifteen minutes breaks. Unfortunately, stopping what you are doing to take a break you don't want takes you out of your zone. When you are feverishly working on something, having to stop makes it very hard to pick up where you left off.

This is very unnecessary in an industry where nobody is putting your nose to the ground stone. Most people I worked with would stop a random times in the day and just chat with their friends for extended periods of time. They put in their time, but they do it casually.

For studios that don't strictly enforce mandatory breaks, people just lie on their time cards so the company doesn't get in trouble. It is an obnoxious waste of time.

Adding unions would only add more BS like this to the industry, but the worst consequences would be felt by people trying to get in the door.

When I started in the industry, I only had a high school diploma and some college. I joined QA in a trial by fire where 50 people were hired and only the most successful were invited back. This allowed me a foot in the door where I then learned game design from some of the top designers in the industry. I learned 3D modeling and world building from seasoned professionals and I was given access to a series of tools that taught me Javascript, C#, Java, SQL, and the ability to write Software Automation. Thanks to the openness of this industry, I was able to parlay a high school diploma and a love of video games into a six figure career. Many of my friends went on to become designers, writers and artists.

If the video game industry unionized, that door closes for everyone else. The entire practice would be outrite banned. No one would get in without a college degree.

The ability of Developers to jump to new studios would be locked out just as quickly. Everyone could be stuck with a multi year/ multi game contracts.

Game Development is not for everyone, but it is not an abusive practice. The people who can handle the job excel and the people who cannot quit or don't get asked to stay. Obviously not every studio runs the same way. All of the studies I worked for were dramatically different, but one thing was always true. If you don't like your studios, there are ten more trying to poach you every day.

Sorry if that came off a little strong, but I very much disapprove of people who do not do the work trying to make changes that no one is asking for. Changes I, and most of my friends, personally believe would only negatively impact the employees of this great industry.

Interesting input, but your anecdotes are at odds with so many other voices like this:

https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2017-04-03-an-industry-driven-by-passion-not-pay

Why do Waypoint care so much about something that the people involved don't seem to care about though. I would expect countless anonymous horror stories but they are few and very far between. It's weird the people making the most noise are people outside looking in

You shouldn't speak for the entire gaming community just because you don't notice all the woeful cries that many developers make as they endure crunch. Waypoint (and Kotaku) have started doing this kind of investigative journalism BECAUSE of the fact that so many developers have came out in public about the soul-crushing scenarios they go through during crunch.
 

brainchild

Independent Developer
Verified
Nov 25, 2017
9,484
Why do Waypoint care so much about something that the people involved don't seem to care about though. I would expect countless anonymous horror stories but they are few and very far between. It's weird the people making the most noise are people outside looking in

There are horror stories though. Have you been living under a rock?
 

ratcliffja

Member
Oct 28, 2017
5,962
I'm just thankful to be at a studio (Survios) where crunch is kept to a minimum and work-life balance is highly valued. I'm glad that Waypoint is bringing this situation to light, though, as I've heard many horror stories from my coworkers about some of their previous employers.
 

SPRidley

Member
Oct 25, 2017
8,254
Nintendo is a very weird situation.

Next Level doesn't crunch at all
Retro crunches constantly and on a Naughty Dog like level.
Mercury Steam is just a hellsite in general. They don't have much crunch, but the head of the studio is a megalomaniac who hates all of his employees.

So the western Nintendo studios have... very different approaches to crunch.

About mercury steam, and metroid.
Enric Alvarez wasnt even let near the game by Sakamoto and Nintendo.
They knew what they were doing and who was the trouble maker there.

Pretty sure the development process of metroid and other projects with enric alavarez as the led were completely different in nature.
 

Eolz

Banned
Oct 25, 2017
7,601
FR
Ones from years ago? I would expect endless horror stories from people that have moved companies or quit the industry.
People usually don't like to burn bridges, or someone just don't even want to talk about it again (cf that recent article about Retro's working conditions on MP1).
 

WillyFive

Avenger
Oct 25, 2017
6,989
Why do Waypoint care so much about something that the people involved don't seem to care about though. I would expect countless anonymous horror stories but they are few and very far between. It's weird the people making the most noise are people outside looking in

Journalism.

Usually people suffering from an injustice are the least likely to complain and try to fight it. This happens in abuse cases, cults, industries, and countries. Why couldnt it be the case for the game industry?
 

jakoo

Member
Oct 27, 2017
1,112
Why do Waypoint care so much about something that the people involved don't seem to care about though. I would expect countless anonymous horror stories but they are few and very far between. It's weird the people making the most noise are people outside looking in

I mean, who knows how much "the people involved" care or not, when there is such narrow visibility into the business practices of these studios? Perhaps there are some studios where crunch is regular and literally everyone on the team is OK with it, but I would imagine in such cases there is a lot of group pressure to perform at such a high level for fear of reprisal/looking less valuable then fellow employees. It's all anecdotal at this point, but I certainly know that I work in tech and have worked month long periods of crunch that I wouldn't have complained publicly about for fear of reprisal, even anonymously. I do recommend Jason Schreier's book though, which has a throughline that crunch is indeed a problem that plagues studios large and small.

By Waypoint making it an issue, it puts accountability that organizations should be "on notice" that there will be an outlet willing to go to the mat on tarnishing the goodwill value of the company if they aren't treating their people as well as they say they do. I actually don't really have a problem with some of the studios in this article saying "crunch is part of the culture" because at least they are being transparent about the type of studio they are running even if that doesn't sound great for prospective employees. However, for companies that are trying to take stance that crunch is bad, they should be held accountable if they are following their own stated goals to reducing it.

I don't love every "take" Waypoint has, but it's a net good to have an adversarial publication in the gaming industry such as theirs that will try to root issues such as these out.
 

Gnorman

Banned
Jan 14, 2018
2,945
People usually don't like to burn bridges, or someone just don't even want to talk about it again (cf that recent article about Retro's working conditions on MP1).
I understand a lot of people don't want to burn bridges but surely SOME would. These are intelligent educated professionals, not one of them has ever thought 'fuck this I'm going to be the one to make a difference and bring about change'? I don't believe that for one second.
 

Eolz

Banned
Oct 25, 2017
7,601
FR
I understand a lot of people don't want to burn bridges but surely SOME would. These are intelligent educated professionals, not one of them has ever thought 'fuck this I'm going to be the one to make a difference and bring about change'? I don't believe that for one second.
It's sadly fairly easy to get blacklisted in this industry, and nobody wants to hire someone shitting publicly on their previous employer.
Hence the call for unions and similar.
 

Gnorman

Banned
Jan 14, 2018
2,945
It's sadly fairly easy to get blacklisted in this industry, and nobody wants to hire someone shitting publicly on their previous employer.
Hence the call for unions and similar.
What about people who have retired, or quit the industry, or just thought enough is enough?
 
Nov 9, 2017
482
If developers can earn so much more money and work much fewer hours in other areas why don't we see a mass migration away from game development? Sure, some people might be risk-adverse, have families, etc but these aren't poor uneducated people with no other options. I love the posters that say they would pay $90 for games - how many people here refuse to buy full price for a game and wait until a deep discount?
 

Slayven

Never read a comic in his life
Moderator
Oct 25, 2017
93,636
I guess I'm not the only one disappointed that there was nothing on Nintendo of Japan, but here's an interesting thought: does Nintendo of Japan need to crunch?
  • It's got several tankers' worth of cash and no debt. It absolutely doesn't need to worry about meeting deadlines to pay their bills. I get the impression they don't Really care that much about investors either.
  • It doesn't announce release dates well in advance. Hell it doesn't announce the existence of most games well in advance. Many games only get definitive release dates half a year in advance, and by then you can be certain that it's pretty much done already.
  • And if it turns out that the game really isn't ready, they just delay it like it's nobody's business (see Zelda, and many of us suspect Yoshi was delayed).
  • Nintendo of Japan is big. I read somewhere that when someone at Nintendo of Japan comes up with an idea, he walks around gathering people to work on a prototype. So maybe it works that way for development too: if they're approaching a deadline, they walk around kidnapping people from other divisions. Since most games don't have release dates coming up soon, nobody on the outside would even know if some other game was delayed as a result.
So yeah. Maybe Nintendo of Japan doesn't need to crunch much. But most companies wouldn't be able to replicate them.
But isn't crunch already built into the Japanese work culture?
 

Mizavari

Member
Jan 19, 2018
271
But isn't crunch already built into the Japanese work culture?
Well, it depends. Japanese culture has 'normal overtime' so to say: you can be expected to work late and then hang out drinking with your co-workers.

Crunch is more intense than 'normal overtime' though. Normal overtime is working late, but it's not necessarily (always) intense, you just stay at the office longer because you're sort of expected to, and even if you are busy, you're not rushing like mad 24/7 to get everything done. It's like, crunch is expecting you to sprint for several weeks/months, and normal overtime is just walking or jogging at a normal pace, except for for a really long time and all the time.
 

Edgar

User requested ban
Banned
Oct 29, 2017
7,180
I think crunch is ridiculous. As in the unpaid type of crunch. If crunch is needed but people are getting paid overtime as they should, then it's all up to the individuals and the company to agree on what amount of extra time is necessary.

Personally, I'd never crunch for CDPR. I'd never even work for them. I find their games bland and uninteresting and would dread every single day working on something I wouldn't want to play. Have no type at all for Cyberpunk. However, I'd happily crunch for Naughty Dog to help bring to life some of the most amazing, emotional and satisfying games I've ever played. It's all relative. But provided I was getting paid my due overtime, of course, at acceptable rates.
So crunch is ok for a company you like like games from?
 

Azzanadra

Member
Oct 25, 2017
3,809
Canada
This is a particular thing of mine. Crunch is not "peak efficiency", it's the opposite.

If you want developers at their most efficient, you should schedule them for between 32 and 40 hours per week. Once you go north of 40, that developer starts becoming increasingly inefficient, doing less work in more time as fatigue sets in.

The reason that companies regard this as "high efficiency" is 1) it sounds good, and 2) they don't have to pay any real price for the extra hours.

If you suddenly changed the labor laws such that developers were not exempt from overtime pay, no one would pay developers for overtime unless they were facing a crisis. Otherwise, the prospect of paying people increased rates for decreased output would make overtime verboten in the field.

You're probably right, with how wealthy this corporations are there definitely seems to be several avenues to alleviate this problem- like buying more office space, hiring more employees- in the long term, this can only be a good thing for the industry else all the talent will be driven out like Bruce Straley.

I'm not a fan however of how Era is the only place we are willing to discuss these issues, on Reddit for example where CDPR (for example) is the do-no-wrong golden boy, you would get such responses like "lazy devs" or "lol cant handle the pressure". These shortsighted fanboys miss the point- that talented individuals will avoid the games industry/leave if these conditions persist. Why do high-grade work for low-grade pay when the lucrative software industry can provide many jobs with better pay AND more free time? All the talent being driven out will own negatively impact the industry in the long run.
 

Vela

Alt Account
Banned
Apr 16, 2018
1,818
Most consumers don't care. It is all well and good to say this as they are the group with most leverage, but in practical terms, it makes no difference.

The only people with the potential interest and practical ability are those working in the industry. But note, they have to take an interest in doing so.

Not recognizing the power of numbers in a thread about unionizing is a bad look. This doesn't relieve the responsibility from CEOs.

I thought the sarcasm was obvious
 

Roy

Member
Oct 27, 2017
2,471
Many states require mandatory breaks, one hour for lunch and two fifteen minutes breaks. Unfortunately, stopping what you are doing to take a break you don't want takes you out of your zone. When you are feverishly working on something, having to stop makes it very hard to pick up where you left off.
I've been part of multiple unions and never ever heard of this. And even if something like this exists, how would you know that this bizarre outlier method would be enforced in a potential game developer union??
 

MonadL

Member
Oct 25, 2017
4,896
I'm sorry but you sound like a studio head rather than an employee.
As someone also in this industry, and also knowing many people in many different countries, I've never heard this kind of stuff other than by old guys trying to stay relevant, or young people trying to exploit others.
Yeah I've worked for 3 studios myself, two AAA, and that dudes post seemed like a giant pile of bullshit.
 

Lastbroadcast

Member
Jul 6, 2018
1,938
Sydney, Australia
Reggie's answer was the right one - if your business is incapable of fulfilling workflow with existing staffing levels, then put on more staff.

Paid overtime laws were not fought for by unions to give you more money. In many countries the overtime rates of pay are the same or higher than the hourly rate of pay. Why? The goal was to discourage disreputable employers from squeezing their own staff to the bone. Not only is that bad for the people working there, it also creates unemployment by forcing one person to do the work of two people. Unions fought for these laws for a reason.

If you don't get paid overtime for crunching (or get leave in lieu), you are donating your own personal time to your employer for free. It doesn't matter what Industry you are in, whether it's coal mining, investment banking or video game development.

If you want to donate your own time to your employer for free because you're passionate, that's your business. And you're an idiot.
 

Deleted member 5535

User requested account closure
Banned
Oct 25, 2017
13,656
Well, it depends. Japanese culture has 'normal overtime' so to say: you can be expected to work late and then hang out drinking with your co-workers.

Crunch is more intense than 'normal overtime' though. Normal overtime is working late, but it's not necessarily (always) intense, you just stay at the office longer because you're sort of expected to, and even if you are busy, you're not rushing like mad 24/7 to get everything done. It's like, crunch is expecting you to sprint for several weeks/months, and normal overtime is just walking or jogging at a normal pace, except for for a really long time and all the time.

I guess I'm not the only one disappointed that there was nothing on Nintendo of Japan, but here's an interesting thought: does Nintendo of Japan need to crunch?
  • It's got several tankers' worth of cash and no debt. It absolutely doesn't need to worry about meeting deadlines to pay their bills. I get the impression they don't Really care that much about investors either.
  • It doesn't announce release dates well in advance. Hell it doesn't announce the existence of most games well in advance. Many games only get definitive release dates half a year in advance, and by then you can be certain that it's pretty much done already.
  • And if it turns out that the game really isn't ready, they just delay it like it's nobody's business (see Zelda, and many of us suspect Yoshi was delayed).
  • Nintendo of Japan is big. I read somewhere that when someone at Nintendo of Japan comes up with an idea, he walks around gathering people to work on a prototype. So maybe it works that way for development too: if they're approaching a deadline, they walk around kidnapping people from other divisions. Since most games don't have release dates coming up soon, nobody on the outside would even know if some other game was delayed as a result.
So yeah. Maybe Nintendo of Japan doesn't need to crunch much. But most companies wouldn't be able to replicate them.

Exactly. And Yoshi was indeed delayed, already confirmed.

But that would only apply to Nintendo EPD, I don't think that this would apply to their owned studios or partners who work with them.
 

Bashteee

Member
Oct 27, 2017
1,193
I read a lot about unions, but can someone explain what that would look like? Not from the US, so I'm having trouble with that.

If developers can earn so much more money and work much fewer hours in other areas why don't we see a mass migration away from game development? Sure, some people might be risk-adverse, have families, etc but these aren't poor uneducated people with no other options. I love the posters that say they would pay $90 for games - how many people here refuse to buy full price for a game and wait until a deep discount?

I think I remember an article being posted here about the difficulties of finding senior employees, because most of them left the industry. So there is a migration. However, there are enough young people, willing to join their favorite game companies. I also wouldn't pay fullprice for a game anytime soon, my backlog is way too big for that.
 

Quad Lasers

Member
Oct 26, 2017
3,542
The huge difference in tone between the producer/management side(IO, Microsoft, ESA, that Ubi PR dickhead) and the actual directors/designers/artists in this article is fucking comical.

Tells you all you need to know.
 

Min

Member
Oct 25, 2017
4,085
Why do Waypoint care so much about something that the people involved don't seem to care about though. I would expect countless anonymous horror stories but they are few and very far between. It's weird the people making the most noise are people outside looking in

There's not a lot of horror stories because I feel most people just walk off quietly to work in a more lucrative industry with less demands. There was just an article detailing a GDC poll that stated 32% of atendees have been in the industry for less than 6 years.

https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/318588/The_great_video_game_exodus.php
 

krs

Member
Oct 25, 2017
194
Huh, that's pretty interesting had no idea I wonder if the Dice's (not EA's specifically) QA is protected under that Union.
It's pretty normal in Sweden. Almost everyone, regardless of industry, is part of a union representing that industry. It's actually kind of weird if you're not part of a union.

The situation is kind of interesting since we don't have minimum wage here. Wages, vacation days, and everything else is negotiated between unions and the industries. Then of course you can further negotiate your wage with your company, but the minimum is set by unions. People in IT, including game devs and QA, are usually members in "Unionen". You don't have to be part of a union to take advantage of the benefits that the unions negotiate with companies, but they won't help you if you're not a member should you need it.
 
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